lava a.i. Design of an Interactive Online Device Master thesis in THE Industrial Design Engineering Program Marcus Hansson Per Tengstrand PPU - Department of Product- and Production development Chalmers University of Technology Göteborg, Sweden 2011 Report no Swedish manufacturer of TV sets People of Lava is a small company with a history of creating innovative products. In 2010 the company introduced the world’s first TV set equipped with Google’s Android operating system. This TV set, called Scandinavia, enables a user to browse the Internet, send e-mails and use applications from the comfort of their living room. People of Lava has identified a possibility to take the interac- tive functions of the Android system to a higher level in an entirely new product. By incorporating audio and video communication functions in an Android-powered standalone device, any modern TV set can become a central device in the communication users have with the world. The focus of this master thesis project has been to design the visual form and user interaction of such a product. The project has included research on current trends in control and input methods to find a suitable form of interaction with the product. The attitudes and demands of potential users have been investigated. An extensive form study has been performed to find an aesthetically pleasing expression in the product. Furthermore, the People of Lava brand has been analysed to find a way to strengthen the brand identity through the use of a well defined form language. The final result is the Lava A.I., a unique product in both appearance and functionality. It can be hung from a wall mounted TV set from its power cord, utilising a form ele- ment that is usually undesired as a prominent design feature. An Android circuit board and a digital video camera has been enclosed in a small device that features simple yet expres- sive aesthetics. The concept incorporates a remote control with both a trackpad and a full QWERTY keyboard for easy interaction reminiscent of a laptop. Thus, the concept fulfills user demands on fast, easy and familiar interaction. The func- tion of the Lava A.I. can compete with products like smart- phones, tablets, laptops and set-top boxes. It brings together Internet connectivity and video communication in a device designed to be enjoyed from the comfort of your living room. Keywords: Product development, Design, Interaction, Aes- thetics, Internet, Television, Visual Brand Identity Abstract The project has involved several other people than the authors and we would like to thank them for their help and involvement throughout the project. First and foremost we would like to thank the following per- sons at People of Lava: Tecnical Director Mathias Adolfsson, Business Developer Johan Lantz, Marketing Director Martin Ljunggren, CEO Christian Svantesson and Founder Lars Svantesson. Their drive and passion has been inspiring. We would like to thank our project examiner and supervisor at Chalmers Ulrike Rahe for pushing, guiding and support- ing us in our design process. We have also had mentors at the design consultancy Zenit, Lotta Svärd and Åsa Andblad, who we would like to thank for their inspiration and guidance. There input has been extremely valuable. Acknowledgements Contents 1. Introduction� 6 1.1 Background� 7 1.2 Purpose� 7 1.3 Aim� 7 1.4 Delimitations� 7 1.5 Report Structure� 7 2. People of Lava� 8 2.1 Introduction� 9 2.2 People of Lava products� 9 2.3 Android in People of Lava’s products� 10 2.3.1 Web browsing� 10 2.3.2 Applications� 10 2.4 Competition � 11 2.4.1 Bang & Olufsen� 11 2.4.2 Loewe� 11 2.4.3 Samsung� 11 2.4.4 Google TV� 12 2.4.5 Boxee� 12 2.4.6 Peel� 12 2.5 Description of new product � 13 3. Knowledge base� 14 3.1 Form and functionality� 15 3.1.1 Visual Brand Identity� 15 3.1.2 Differentiation� 15 3.1.3 Novelty and Aesthetics in Design� 16 3.1.4 Diffusion of Innovations� 16 3.1.6 Multimodality and Sensory Processes� 17 3.1.7 Mental Models� 17 3.1.8 Gestalt Laws� 18 3.2 Technology� 19 3.2.1 Terminology� 19 3.2.2 Input methods� 20 3.2.3 Guidelines for Video Communication on TV�22 3.3 Internet and tv� 24 3.3.1 Internet of Things� 24 3.3.3 Internet on the TV� 24 3.3.2 TV on the Internet� 24 4. Methods� 25 4.1 Requiremt gathering methods� 26 4.1.1 Interviews� 26 4.1.2 Focus Group� 26 4.1.3 KJ-analysis� 26 4.1.4 Functional analysis� 26 4.2 Development methods� 26 4.2.1 Brainstorming� 26 4.2.2 Personas� 27 4.2.3 Scenarios� 27 4.2.4 Sketching, Models, Mock-ups and Prototypes � 27 4.2.5 Structural Models� 27 4.2.6 Computer Aided Design� 28 4.2.7 Design Format Analysis� 28 4.2.8 Moodboards� 28 5. Process description� 29 5.1 Introduction� 30 5.2 Information gathering� 30 5.3 Concept creation� 30 5.4 Concept Refinement� 30 6. User behaviour and brand identity� 31 6.1 Introduction� 32 6.2 Technology and Trends� 32 6.3 User behaviour� 32 6.4 Visual brand identity� 34 6.4.1 Design format analysis� 34 4.4.2 Visual Brand Strategy� 35 6.5 Functional requirements� 35 7. Concept creation� 37 7.1 Introduction� 38 7.2 Form study� 38 7.2.1 Free Sketching and Sketching From Expressions� 38 7.2.2 Structural models� 38 7.2.3 The Lava Brand as Form Driver� 39 7.2 Conceptualisation 1� 40 7.3 Conceptualisation 2� 41 7.3.1 The Four Concepts� 41 7.3.2 The Trackpad Remote Control Concept� 41 7.3.3 Concept 1 - Camdroid� 42 7.3.4 Concept 2 - Social+� 44 7.3.5 Concept 3 - Björk� 46 7.3.6 Concept 4 - Android Remote� 48 8. Concept refinement� 50 8.1 Introduction� 51 8.2 Evaluation 1� 51 8.3 Refinement of the Concepts� 52 8.3.1 Refinement of Social +� 52 8.2.2 Refinement of Camdroid� 52 8.2.3 Refinement of the remote� 53 8.3 Evaluation 2� 54 8.3.1 User evaluation� 54 8.4 Choice of Final Concept� 54 9. Final concept� 55 9.1 Introduction� 56 9.2.1 Main Functions� 57 9.2.2 Physical Functionality� 58 9.3 The Lava A.I. Remote� 60 9.4 Form and Brand Identity� 62 9.5 Colour and Cobranding� 64 9.6 Interaction� 65 9.8 Sustainability� 66 9.7 Materials and manufacturing� 67 9.9 Market possibilities � 68 10. Discussion� 69 10.1 Introduction� 70 10.2 The Lava A.I.� 70 10.2.1 Functionality � 70 10.2.2 Interaction� 70 10.2.3 Form� 70 10.3 Process� 71 11. Recommendations� 72 11.1 Recommendations� 73 12. CONCLUSION� 74 12.1 CONCLUSION� 75 13. References� 76 13.1 Books� 77 13.2 Articles� 77 13.3 Dissertations� 77 13.4 Documents� 77 13.5 Websites� 77 14. appendices� 79 Appendix 1. Workbook� 80 Appendix 2. Functional analysis� 83 Appendix 3. Early Concepts� 85 6 1. Introduction This chapter describes the framework of the report, why the project has been carried out and what is hoped to be achieved. 7 1.1 Background People of Lava is a producer of exclusive TV sets and TV accessories. The company is located in Sweden with its head office in Stora Höga. People of Lava strives to be unique by focusing on quality and innovation. The company delivers hand built products with state of the art performance for a high-end niche market where design and product experience are high priorities. The Scandinavian heritage is evident in both the design and naming of their products. In the spring of 2010 People of Lava presented a new TV, named Scandi- navia, that incorporates a version of Google’s operating sys- tem Android. The use of Android allows users to surf the web and download applications to their TV. This implementation brings new types of interaction and possibilities to everyday TV use. 1.2 Purpose People of Lava operates in a niche market, thus needing to continuously create buzz around it products and brand to stay competitive. Cutting edge products are a key factor in this strategy. People of Lava have found a new business possibility with a product that connects TV to mobile communication. This possibility requires a new type of product to be designed, continuing on the path that was started with the Scandinavia TV set. As the product will be highly visible it requires well thought through interaction and design. The purpose of this project is therefore to design a product that will create new types of interaction and communica- tion possibilities using TVs. The purpse is also to design the product so that it fits well together with the People of Lava brand and products. The project will be carried out in collaboration People of Lava with mentoring from Zenit design consultancy and tu- tors from Chalmers University of Technology. 1.3 Aim The main aim of the project is to design an interactive online device that allows communication between different us- ers and between users and devices via a TV set. The device should use People of Lava’s technique of implementing mobile technology in everyday TV interaction. Another big priority is to design a product that communicates its use and functionality in an easily comprehensible way. The product is intended to be used with TV sets, not only from People of Lava but also from competing manufacturers. Therefore, adaptability, integration and brand recognition are highly pri- oritised in the project. The nature of the product means that user interaction and overall functionality will have a large part in the design of the product. The aim is also to answer the following questions: • How can the interaction be designed to make the user feel more emotionally connected to the product itself and the People of Lava brand? • How should the product be designed to allow seamless integration with the entertainment systems of a modern home? • What are People of Lava’s brand values and how can they be reflected in a new product design? • Will this product allow new types of social behaviours to be formed and in that case how can it do this? 1.4 Delimitations This project will focus on developing the form aesthetics of the casing and the user interaction of an online device. The design of possible control devices are of secondary impor- tance. Design and development of software and graphical user interfaces are not included in the scope of the project. Cost will be considered in the choice of materials and manu- facturing processes but no economical calculations or estima- tions will be included in the scope of the project. 1.5 Report Structure This thesis project of creating an interactive online device has been focused on two main areas. The first is the develop- ment of form and expression connected to the People of Lava brand. The second is the development of interactive functions involving web browsing, applications and audio/video com- munication in relation to a TV set. These two areas require knowledge about the habits and demands of the intended target group and the possibilities and limitations of the ap- plicable technology. Finally, knowledge about visual aesthet- ics, branding, ergonomics and form semantics finish off the scope of the project. As far as possible, the report presents the working process in chronological order. 8 2. People of Lava This chapter consists of a description of the history of People of Lava and their products. It contains descriptions of competing brands and potential rivaling products to the concept developed in the project. A brief description of the intended final product is also given. 9 2.1 Introduction People of Lava is a company manufacturing and market- ing premium TV sets and accessories for the TV market. The company was founded in 2001, by Christian and Lars Svantesson and has since then been creating TV sets and TV accessories with a clear focus on design and quality (People of Lava, 2011a). Today, People of Lava has around 20 employ- ees in Sweden but also have several sales offices around the world. People of Lava has since the beginning tried to combine quality components from different suppliers with design to create TV sets and accessories for a premium market. The design has been a strong selling point for People of Lava and they have marketed the products to hotels and boutiques across Scandinavia. People of Lava also has a habit of creating products that are a world’s first and was the first company to release a motorised mount enabling the users to move, slide and tilt their TVs with the push of a button. The company are now the world leaders within this segment of TV accessories. People of Lava was also the first in the world to introduce TV sets with exchangeable colour frames and in 2010 they showed their Scandinavia TV set with a built in Android system. The Scandinavia TV set allows users to surf the web and download applications, making the tv experience more interactive. With the release of the Scandinavia, People of Lava started to refer to the TV as a ”Window to the World”, implying that it is so much more than just a TV set (People of Lava, 2011a). In the People of Lava product catalogue the Window to the World is explained as follows: ”We envision a seamlessly connected world where people socialise and inter- act beyond physical boundaries. A world where we see, show and share. We are People of Lava, a Window to the World.” (People of Lava, 2011b). In this report the Android system will be called the ‘Window to the World’ software. 2.2 People of Lava products People of Lava currently sell four different TV sets: Royal Sweden, Scandinavia, Granite and Flex. Royal Sweden is People of Lava’s most exclusive TV set, with a brushed aluminium frame and thin LED backlit screen. Granite is People of Lava’s mid sized TV set ranging from 19 to 32 inch in size. The Flex TV sets are smaller than the other TVs and allow the user to exchange the frame for other colours. Scandinavia is People of Lava’s interactive television set. The different products are shown in figures 2.1-2.4. People of Lava also produce several different mounts, stands and lifts that enable mounting in several different ways. People of Lava was the first to company to introduce motor controlled mounts to the market. Figure 2.1 The Scandinavia TV Figure 2.2 The Roytal Sweden TV Figure 2.3 The Granite TV Figure 2.4 The Flex TV 10 2.3 Android in People of Lava’s products People of Lava’s Scandinavia TV set incorporates an Android software to allow the user to surf the web and download ap- plications, see figure 2.5. With the built in web browser and applications such as Youtube, mail and Facebook users can access information all around the web. Users can also down- load other applications through the use of People of Lava’s application market. The Android system is controlled by a remote control with a keyboard. As most other Android applications are made for smartphones and tablets, applications must be re-coded to fit the interaction with the Scandinvia TV set. To cope with this, People of Lava has created their own market for applications, where applications are made to work with the TV set. In the Scandinivia, the Android system is separated from the TV system. This results in that a user can only use one system at a time. The switch between the modes, TV and Android, can be done through the push of a button on the remote. When starting the Window to the World mode, users are greeted with a home screen displaying widgets, like a weather and a clock widget, see figure 2.6. In the software the user can check their e-mail, browse the web and download and use applications. As each Scandinavia has a unique MAC adress, an identifier on the network circuit board, the system can be updated with the latest software update. The mac adress allows updates to be configured to fit specific languages and devices. 2.3.1 Web browsing Web browsing is one of the main features of the software, allowing the users to access most of the web pages available online. Some web pages, containing Adobe Flash and Mi- crosoft Silverlight plug-ins, cannot be viewed on the device. In future software updates this functionality can be added to allow for more functionality. The user can navigate around a web page by pressing the dif- ferent arrow buttons on the remote, and can also increase the text and image size by pressing the zoom buttons, seen in fig- ure 2.7. As the user normally views the pages from a distance, the zoom buttons allows the user to more easily read long texts in a bigger size. To press links and images the user must skip through each of the links on the visible page to get to the one he or she wants to continue to. In larger pages, with a lot of links, the user must press the arrow keys many times to reach the desired link. To get more functionality the user can press the menu but- ton. When doing this a menu pops up allowing the user to enter web URLs or use bookmarks. The menu is visable in the bottom of the TV in figure 2.5. 2.3.2 Applications Youtube, Facebook and email applications are included in the system by default, allowing the user to easily access these from the home screen. Several other applications can also be downloaded from People of Lava’s Android market. All of the applications available have been created to function with the Window to the World software and Scandinavia remote. In the future, applications for viewing online content from television networks can be made available. With this functionality users can be able to browse content from for example SVT Play, TV4 Play and services from several other television networks. To do this, each network would have to create applications that fit and function with the Window to the World. Figure 2.5 The Scandinavia web browser Figure 2.7 - The Scandinavia remote Figure 2.6 The Scandinavia with Window to the World software 11 Figure 2.8 Bang & Olufsen Beosound 5 2.4 Competition To get a better understanding of the products currently on the market a small analysis was made on the products and companies competing with People of Lava. Figure 2.9 Leowe TV with Napster app Figure 2.10 Samsung remote with tv functionality 2.4.1 Bang & Olufsen Bang & Olufsen is a Danish manufacturer of exclusive hi-fi equipment. The company focuses on distinctive aesthetics and high quality customer experiences, see figure 2.8. Bang & Olufsen’s vision is to have the courage to constantly question the ordinary in search of surprising, long lasting experiences (Bang & Olufsen, 2011). People of Lava is a close competitor to Bang & Olufsen on the premium TV market. Bang & Olufsen’s TV sets do not have any web functionality, instead the company focuses on high quality video and audio paired with slim designs, see figure 2.8. 2.4.2 Loewe Loewe is a close competitor to People of Lava. Both compa- nies state innovation and design as core values. Loewe strives to have a clearly identifiable brand recognition, vision and ex- perience, relying heavily on its long heritage and knowledge within the home entertainment market. Customers should experience the premiumness of the Loewe brand whenever they come into contact with it (Loewe, 2011a). The distinct Loewe design cues are apparent in all product categories, thus creating a unified look when displayed together, either in a shop or at home, see figure 2.9. The Connect range provides the user with Internet access through the TV set via a software feature called MediaNet (Loewe, 2011b). It allows the user to connect to several Inter- net based applications and also surf the web freely using an Opera browser (Loewe, 2011b). 2.4.3 Samsung Samsung is at the forefront of developing and adopting new technology and is in that aspect a competitor to People of Lava. Samsung rarely mention aesthetics as a unique selling point. This is one of the factors where Samsung differs from premium manufacturers like People of Lava. High specification TV sets from Samsung incorporate 3D- viewing, Internet, and wireless connectivity all in one device. Internet@TV is the name of Samsung’s Internet function. It is a collection of widgets for displaying Internet-based content like video, news, weather and social networks. The widgets can be displayed at the same time as you are watch- ing TV (Samsung, 2011). The remote control of the 9-series TVs can show a different channel on its 3 inch display than the one you are watching on the TV set, see figure 2.10. It is also a multi-device remote that can control other audio and video devices. A computer can be wirelessly connected to a network via Samsung’s feature Allshare (DLNA) and a user can browse the media content of that computer on the remote. 12 2.4.4 Google TV In may 2010 Google announced a new TV platform devel- oped together with Intel, Sony and Logitech based on the Android operating system (The Official Google Blog, 2010). The main function of the Google TV platform is to allow users to access web content on their TV sets and bring more interactivity to the everyday TV use (The Official Google Blog, 2010). This function makes Google TV a competitor to People of Lava’s Scandinavia TV sets. Searching for a TV show in the Google TV web browser will provide results from both web based content and also the time it is going to be aired on a specific network (Google, 2011). The service allows users to watch TV while browsing the web at the same time (The Official Google Blog, 2010). All Google TV platforms support remote controlling of the interface with Android and iPhone mobile phones (Google, 2011). Google does not market Google TV themselves but provide it through manufacturers of TV sets. In 2011 only a few manu- facturers sell TV sets, Blu-ray players and companion boxes with the Google TV platform, one of them is Sony, see figure 2.11 The remote controls provided with the Sony TV sets have a small QWERTY keyboard for text input and a keypad for a mouse like control (Ny Teknik, 2010). The TV allows downloading of applications to easier access social networks and movies. Sony also sell a Blu-ray player with Google TV, allowing users to connect it to any TV set (Ny Teknik, 2010). Logitech has released a box type solution containing Google TV called the Logitech Revue. It is controlled by a keyboard and a trackpad and has accessories like a camera for the TV set. The Logitech TV cam thus provides high-definition video calling for TVs (Logitech, 2011). 2.4.5 Boxee Boxee is a software platform which allows access to locally stored media and web content from a single interface (Boxee, 2011a). People of Lava competes with Boxee on the possibility of having web applications on TV sets. The Boxee software is aimed at different Home Theater PC (HTPC) systems focus- ing on TV and movie viewing. The system also has social net- work features connecting it to Facebook and Twitter (Boxee, 2011b). The software platform can also be distributed to many different devices such as Macs, PC’s and devices designed spe- cifically for the Boxee platform (Boxee, 2011c). The Boxee does not allow web browsing but allows for downloading of movies and shows through bittorrent and Boxee applications. The first system delivered with the Boxee platform pre- installed was the Boxee box by D-link (Boxee, 2011a). This device is a HTPC with the Linux operating system running the Boxee software platform (Boxee, 2011a). A remote with a QWERTY keyboard in the back is delivered with the device (Boxee, 2011a). 2.4.6 Peel Peel is a product that turns an iPhone, iPad or iPod Touch into a remote. It was introduced in late 2010 and consists of an app, a cable for Wi-Fi access and an infrared (IR) trans- mitter dubbed ‘The Fruit’, see figure 2.12. The app is free to download from Apple’s App Store and the the Fruit and cable are sold in Apple Stores (Peel, 2011a). The app contains an interface displaying TV content as a graphic programme guide. Content is shown as a mosaic of thumbnail images and categorised by type and genre (Peel, 2011b). Programmes are started by clicking a thumbnail image on the screen of the Apple device used. The app gradually learns the user’s preferences in programming and streamlines the content shown in the interface to fit those preferences (Peel, 2011b). The so called Fruit can control several common home enter- tainment devices like TVs, cable or satellite boxes, Blu-ray players, AV receivers and Apple TV (Peel, 2011c). Nothing needs to be plugged into the iPhone and the Fruit can be placed almost anywhere in the room (Peel, 2011c). A cable needs to be plugged into a wireless router to access the Wi-Fi network (Peel, 2011c, d). Figure 2.11 Sony TV with Google TV Figure 2.12 The Peel fruit and Iphone remote 13 Figure 2.13 The Android circuit board Figure 2.14 The Window to the World home screen 2.5 Description of new product The product to be designed is meant to use the Window to the World interface together with new communicative func- tions like a camera. The product should function together with any television set, from any manufacturer, to add a level of interactivity to everyday TV use. The communicative function is meant to create a new way of socialing with a users friends and family, bringing them together even if they are far away from each other. In reality this means using video and audio communication, and finding a way to make it comfortable and seamless for different users. Incorporating the Window to the World software in the de- vice is done by using an Android circuit board, see figures 2.13 and 2.14. The existing circuit board is aproxamately 100 mm by 65 mm and 15 mm thick and has one ethernet port, one HDMI output cable, a power cord and one USB port. 14 3. Knowledge base This chapter contains factual information gathered prior to the creative development phase of the project. The contents focuses on theories on visual aesthetics, ergonomics, applicable technology, input methods and trends. 15 3.1 Form and functionality This part contains theory related to the aesthetics, innova- tion and ergonomics needed for the development of the new product. 3.1.1 Visual Brand Identity In a world where millions of brands are competing for the attention of the customers, being recognised and remembered becomes very important. Recognising a brand and its prod- ucts can make the difference between a customer buying a product or just looking at it in a store. If a customer has used a product from the brand before, and liked it, the positive feeling of that product can be transferred to other products from the same brand. Therefore, it is important to know how customers perceive a specific brand and to consider this in the design of new products. Brand recognition can be achieved in many ways: by graphic coherence, logotypes and architecture to give a few examples. Product design also has a large part in customer recognition of a brand and its products (Karjalainen and Snelders 2009). There are many ways a product can express brand identity through product design. It can be form features that are used often, product lines that are similar in several products and the use of specific materials. Using specific features consist- ently throughout a product portfolio can both help customers to recognise the brand and to differentiate the brand from the competition (Karjalinen, 2007). According to Karjalinen (2007) there are two aspects to take into consideration when regarding customer brand recognition in relation to design: attractiveness and meaning creation. Product attractiveness is of importance both in selling the products and in strengthening a brand. Furthermore, prod- ucts can be designed to express positive meaning to the customers in relation to the brand (Karjalinen, 2007). In the design of products it is possible to create meaning through form elements. Closely connecting the meaning of the form to the brand’s core values makes it possible to create a strong recogniton factor in the products. An example of this is the catwalk in volvo cars, see figure 3.1 . The protruding shoulder on the sides of the car express that the car is safe and robust. This expression is quite subjective but is still strongly con- nected to Volvo cars’ core value of safety. Repetition of specific form features can also be used to help a customer recognise a brand, even if they are not closely related to the core values. Used consistently in a brand’s products, these features would be recognised by customers but they are not as powerful as the features that also carry a meaning connected to the brand. Karjalainen (2007) differentiates these two types of features by calling the form containing meaning value-based design cues and the repeated features without meaning artifi- cal design cues. Design cues in a product can also be either explicit or implicit. Explicit design cues are instantly recognised by a customer as belonging to a specific brand, a unique form feature. Implicit design cues are not as obvious and refer to characteristics and impressions of the brand. Examples of implicit design cues could be Scandinavian or architectural for example. Explicit design cues can be both of a value based and an artificial nature while implicit cues must be value based in order to create a level of recognition (Karjalinen, 2007). By using a combination of artficial and value based together with implicit and explicit design cues in a brand’s product portfolio it is possible to increase the level of recognition and visual value of the brand (Karjalinen, 2007). 3.1.2 Differentiation Market positioning is a way of finding where to place a prod- uct in relation to its competition. Most companies try to find a unique position where their products stand out from those of other companies, thus gaining a competitive advantage. One way of achieving this is to look at aspects that can help a company differentiate its products through unique properties. Axelsson and Agndal (2005) list 9 possibilities to differentiate a product: 1. Become the first. By being the first company releasing a product or service it is possible to gain large advantages such as setting the standards in the category and becoming the synonym for the product. 2. Be known for a specific property. Having a unique or special property makes it possible for the product to stand out from the competition. The product can become known for this specific property, which in turn might make the brand syn- onymous with the property in the minds of customers. 3. Be the market leader. Being the leading brand gains trust from consumers. 4. Use History. A brand that can rely on a history of produc- ing good products can make the consumers believe in the brand even more. 5. Become the specialist. If a brand focuses on one product it can be known as an expert and specialist in a specific field, making the consumers believe more in the company. Figure 3.1 The Volvo catwalk expressing safety 16 6. Call on. If a consumer lacks knowledge in a product field they often rely on others knowledge to make decisions when buying products. If experts speak well of a product, consumers will often follow. 7. Use technology. Unique features and new technologies makes it is possible to gain an advantage on the market. 8. The latest. By using technology and methods that are trendy and in the forefront of the market, it is possible to gain advantages by standing out compared to the competing products. 9. Brag. Consumers want to hear that the brand producing a product is doing well. It makes them trust the brand even more. 3.1.3 Novelty and Aesthetics in Design In virtually every consumer market it is important to look at how to design products that appeal to the selected target group. Both novelty and aesthetics has been shown to be a large part in catching the attention of consumers and making them interested in a product. Hekkert (2006) lists four prin- ciples that make us experience products in a positive manner: Most advanced yet acceptable, unity in variety, maximum effect for minimum means and optimal match. Novelty and aesthet- ics of products are apparent in each one of these principles. The term ‘most advanced, yet acceptable’, or MAYA, is directly connected to the novelty of products. There is always a conflict in whether a customer wants a product that is fa- miliar or a product that is new and original. Customers often chose familiar products because it is the safe choice, they know how things function and work. At the same time cus- tomers want something new in a hope to overcome boredom (Hekkert, 2006). To overcome this conflict Hekkert (2006) discusses the principle of MAYA. The principle describes that a product should have the optimal combination of typicality and originality for a customer to prefer it over other similar products (Desmet, 2006; Creusen, 2001). The importance of novelty in appearance of products can also be connected to the attention-drawing aspect of products that in the end can affect the point of sale and product choice by customers (Creusen, 2001). If a product stands out from other similar products in a store, a customer is more likely to notice it (Creusen, 2001; Schoormans, Snelders and Lagers-Dresselhuys, 2007). It has also been shown that a product’s appearance is not only connected to the aesthetic part of the product but also to the perception of quality, price and ease of use (Creusen, 2001). The gestalt laws have an important part of a product experi- ence and are part of the second principle, unity in variety. Hekkert (2006) connects this to the fact that we have a per- ceptual tendency to group and to discover relations between objects, helping us create meaning. Grouping things together, seeing symmetry and continuity helps us understand prod- ucts and can therefore be connected to the experience of products. Symmetry and continuity can be seen as aestheti- cally pleasing, but it can also be connected to experience of meaning. Regarding ‘optimal match’, Hekkert (2006) discusses the importance of consistency in the aesthetic part of product experience. The visual expression, the audial experience and the tactile experience should all match for a user to perceive them as desirable. The ‘maximum effect for minimum means’ principle says that we prefer things that take less effort over more demanding items. If we can hear, smell and see things faster and with less effort we appreciate them more (Hekkert, 2006). A product that expresses it’s purpose, meaning or aesthetics in a clear way therefore has an advantage over other products. 3.1.4 Diffusion of Innovations When innovations enter the consumer market the rate at which they are adopted by customers, which is called dif- fusion, varies greatly. In 1962 Everett M. Rogers defined a model for explaining how this phenomenon occurs called the ‘Diffusion of Innovation’ (Proven Models, 2011). The model is based on the theory that people adopt innovations at dif- ferent times of the product’s life cycle and at different rates (Proven Models, 2011). The diffusion of innovations model suggests that the rate of adoption follows an S-shaped curve over time, starting with a slow change followed by rapid change and ending with slow change as the product matures or as new technologies emerge (Proven Models, 2011). The S-curve corresponds well to the rate of adoption during a product’s life cycle. The number of ‘new’ adopters at any given time in the product life cycle follows a bell-shaped Gauss- ian curve. This curve indicates a low number of new adopters at the start and the end of the product life cycle, and a large mass of adopters at about halfway of the S-curve, see figure 2 (Proven Models, 2011). The model divides adopters into five categories according to their willingness and ability to adopt innovations. Proven Models (2011) provides the following definition of the five categories: Innovators are exploring and educated, they have multiple sources of information and are more willing to take risks. They are mo- tivated by being the person who initiates changes within a social group. Innovators can tolerate initial problems that might occur in new products and are willing to propose solutions to them. Figure 3.2 The Diffusion curve Innovators Early adopters Early Majority Late Majority Laggards M arket share 100% 0% 17 Early adopters are social leaders, popular and educated. They are willing to adopt new technology to achieve competitive advantages and price is not a big issue because they believe in great gains from this adoption. Early adopters take high risks but demand personalised solutions and highly qualified support. Early majority adopters are deliberate and have many infor- mal contacts. They look for evolutionary changes rather than revolutionary products. This is a large category of adopters due to the fact that they tend to wait for others willing to make the same change. They look for producers and vendors that are popular and they want the change to be as fast and free of problems as possible. Late majority adopters are skeptical, traditional and of lower sociological and economical status than previous categories. They are very price sensitive and demand products to be fully developed and free of problems. Late majority adopters are only motivated to change as not to fall behind their peers and often rely on only one trusted advisor to help them make the right choice. Laggards are skeptical to change, do not believe that innova- tions will make their lives better and are therefore likely to resist adopting innovations. It is important to remember that these categories are a way of facilitating the explanation of a certain phenomenon and not generally applicable in user or customer categorisations. 3.1.6 Multimodality and Sensory Processes The way humans perceive the world is largely decided by the information that is received by the five major senses: vision, audition, touch, taste and smell (Robinson‐Riegler, G. and Robinson‐Riegler, B., 2003). When several senses process information at the same time the process is called multimo- dality. Each sense has its own strengths and weaknesses but during multimodality the weaknesses can often be compen- sated for by other senses (Bohgard et al., 2009). The process of perception can be divided in two different sub-processes depending on how the stimulus is perceived, either bottom-up precessing or top-down-processing. Bottom-up processing occurs when no other information than that of the stimulus itself is needed to form a perception (Bohgard et al., 2009). The opposite, top-down processing, occurs when context, expectations and previous knowledge is used to determine what is being sensed and thereby perceived (Bohgard et al., 2009). According to Bohgard et al. (2009) top-down processing is an active and highly conscious pro- cess, becoming less and less conscious as the task is famil- iarised, while a bottom-up process is always automatic and unconscious. Factors like ageing and colour blindness can impair the abil- ity to sense visual stimuli. This means that persons affected by factors like these have to rely on top-down processing in many situations (Bohgard et al., 2009). An example is that people who cannot distinguish between red and green have to rely on their knowledge that the green light is at the bot- tom and the red at the top when interpreting traffic lights. Audible stimuli are interpreted using a combination of both top-down and bottom-up processing. Individual words and warnings are single stimuli that often do not require con- sideration of the context to be interpreted correctly. In such situations less attention is needed for interpreting sounds, something that can be very useful in multimodal situations. However, a person with impaired hearing has to use top- down processing to understand speech by consciously trying to fill in the missing words based on the context (Bohgard et al., 2009). Processing sensory information that is induced by touch and the position of the hand is called haptics. It can be recognis- ing edges, curvature and textures or the sensation of weight. Haptics can be helpful in situations where other senses are not sufficient in interpreting a stimulus. When experiencing a product for the first time haptics is often used to assess its features and properties, in other words top-down processing. If primary senses like vision and audition are used to their ultimate capacity, haptics can be used to give additional cues in an interface or a product. Haptics has a big advantage in that a stimulus can be transferred to the body by several means like vibration, friction, weight, temperature, size and rotation for example (Bohgard et al., 2009). Another advantage haptics has is that it can be used when environmental factors like darkness or loud noise limit other senses (Bohgard et al., 2009). 3.1.7 Mental Models A mental model is a representation that an individual has created to mentally picture itself, others and the things that it interacts with (Liu, 2009). When presented with a task a person unconsciously tries to apply a mental model, based on previous knowledge and experience, to the task to assess how it should be performed (Liu, 2009). One mental model represents one possible solution to the task. According to Liu (2009), too many applicable mental models or the choice of a highly complex mental model will affect the performance of the task negatively. Mental models can be formed on either a deeper understanding of how a system works, mechanically or structurally for example, or at a functional level with a knowledge of the necessary steps needed to perform a task (Liu, 2009). It is important for a designer to be aware of the intended us- er’s mental model of a product or service. A designer who has this knowledge can design a system that corresponds to the user’s expectations of the interaction with the system. This will improve the usability and user experience. For example, if users of a certain system do not have any knowledge about the internal mechanics of the system, and do not need it, the designer can hide these parts to avoid confusion and focus on making a highly functional user interface. 18 3.1.8 Gestalt Laws Industrial designer and author Rune Monö (1997, p.33) describes the word gestalt as ‘an arrangement of parts which appears and functions as a whole that is more than the sum of its parts’. What this means is that the way an object is per- ceived by an observer is dependent on the colour, orientation and materials of its parts (Monö, 1997). If one of these things should change, for example colour, the object will most likely appear different to the observer. There are several factors that lets the observer interpret visual impressions as gestalts. Monö (1997, p.35) states that the most frequently used factors are: proximity, similarity, area, sym- metry, enclosedness, ‘the good curve’, common movement and experience. The following is a description of these eight factors by Monö (1997): see figures 3.3-3.5 The proximity factor: Form entities that are grouped closely together will appear as gestalts. The closer the forms are, the clearer the gestalt is. The similarity factor: Objects with similar properties in a group of several different objects will appear as gestalts to the observer. The area factor: A form within an enclosed area will appear more clearly as a gestalt the smaller the enclosed area is. For example, this is why the Swedish flag is seen as a yellow cross on a blue background and not as four blue rectangles on a yellow background. The symmetry factor: Form entities that appear to be mir- rored from a centre line are symmetrical and will be seen as a gestalt by the observer. The inclusion factor: Gestalts can be created by simple lines that enclose an area. For example, four lines that connect in four corners will appear as a square. The good curve: Separate objects that are oriented in a curve will stand out as gestalt in a group of otherwise seemingly unoriented objects. The common movement: Different elements that are moving in the same direction will appear as gestalts to an observer. An example is that the movement of cars in two directions on a multi-lane freeway will appear as two gestalts. The experience factor: Some gestalts can only be perceived cor- rectly if we recognise them from experience. An example is a technical drawing of a machine. The forms on the drawing can only be correctly interpreted by an observer who recog- nises them as that specific machine. 3.1.9 Semantic Functions In industrial design it is crucial to know and understand how different sensory impressions are understood by a user of an object. One important theory that facilitates this process is called semantics, which Monö (1997, p.167) describes as ‘the study of the messages of signs’. Here, signs are sensory impressions, such as products, images or sounds, that we interpret as having been made for a specific purpose (Monö, 1997). It can be understood that somebody has had an inten- tion even if we do not know that it was (Monö, 1997). A product sign can be said to have functions that inform an observer or user what it is, how it works and how it will feel to use it. Monö (1997) defines four semantic functions that applies to the product sign: To describe the purpose of an object and how it should be operated To express properties of an object through form To exhort reactions by sensory impressions like form, sound and scent To identify a product and who made it, what model it is, where it is from, what category it belongs to and so on. This can be done with the use of logotypes, emblems, text, typog- raphy, colour and patterns. Figures 3.3 - 3.10 Gestalt laws Area - the smaller area is seen more clearly irrespective of the of the colour of the surrounding area Experience - the figure to the left could be a stylised drawing of a workshop machine but to the right experience tells us that this is the letter ‘r’ against a coloured background Inclusion - the vertical lines in the two rows are identical the horizontal lines are placed differently and create gestalts Good curve - some of the seemingly unorganised lines in the picture are follow a continous curve, creating a gestalt Similarity Proximity Common movement Symmetry 19 3.2 Technology This part contains short explanations of the basic technology and terminology needed to understand the contents of the report. 3.2.1 Terminology Ethernet Ethernet is a term for the technology of transferring data between computers connected to networks via cable (Cisco, 2011). Ethernet is the dominating technology for fast data transfer in the world (Cisco, 2011). Wi-Fi Wi-Fi is essentially wireless communication between devices such as computers, mobile phones and printers. Wireless communication between multiple devices, a so called Wi-Fi network, requires an access point to be set up. Using radio waves the access point transmits data between the devices connected to it or between an ethernet connection and a device (Wi-Fi Alliance, 2011). High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) is a stand- ard for sending uncompressed all-digital audio and video data between any audio/video device (HDMI, 2011). It has a standardised interface that transmits data via a single cable between devices such as TV sets, monitors, computers, audio/ video receivers, DVD players and set-top boxes (HDMI, 2011). The uncompressed digital data transmission allows sending high-definition video and multi-channel audio free of any loss in quality (HDMI, 2011). Universal Serial Bus (USB) A Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a standardised interface for transmitting data between computers and peripheral devices (USB, 2011). It is a cable transmission with a standardised plug that connects to a corresponding port (USB, 2011). The USB is widely used in computers to connect peripheral devices like printers, external hard drives, computer mice and keyboards. Digital Living Network Alliance (DLNA) The Digital Living Network Alliance (DLNA) is a union of companies that have agreed that their products will be better if they are compatible. More than 245 companies are affiliated to DLNA today, most of them producing consumer electron- ics, mobile and computer devices, components and software (DLNA, 2011). DLNA strives to achieve compatibility be- tween products by using open standards and widely available industry specifications (DLNA, 2011). Infrared Remote Control An infrared remote control is the most common device used to control TV sets (HowStuffWorks, 2011). This handheld de- vice has a Light Emitting Diode (LED) that transmits codes through infrared (IR) light to the TV set (HowStuffWorks, 2011). The TV set has a IR receiver that decodes the light signal from the remote and translates into a command in the TV set’s microprocessor (HowStuffWorks, 2011). IR remotes require a direct line of sight and a maximum distance of 10 meters to be able to transfer a signal (HowStuffWorks, 2011). Infrared Blaster An infrared blaster is a device that emulates an IR remote control (Tech-FAQ, 2011). Normal remote controls that ac- company consumer products like TV sets send codes that are compatible only with that specific device. An IR blaster can send IR signals to virtually any device with an IR receiver if configured with the right set of codes (Tech-FAQ, 2011). Thus, a device with an IR blaster connected to it can control several other devices (Tech-FAQ, 2011). Google Android Operating System In November 2007 Google showed a new mobile phone op- erating system competing with, Apple, Microsoft and Nokia in the smart phone market. The main driver behind realising the Android system was to make it simpler for both users and developers to create applications for mobiles. Developers would be able to easily create applications that use the differ- ent functions of the mobile phone (Techradar, 2008). The Android system was first developed for mobile phones but soon spread to both tablets, e-readers and TV sets. One of the main features of the Android system is the download- able applications, allowing the users to enhance the function- ality of their devices, (Tablet world, 2011). The applications can mainly be downloaded from the Android market applica- tion store, currently housing over 200 000 applications. Set-top box A set-top box is a device that is connected to a TV set and an external source of audio and video signals. The set-top box decodes the incoming source signal and converts it into content that is displayed on the TV set. Streaming media Streaming media is multimedia that is constantly received and presented to an end-user from a streaming provider, meaning that the multimedia is readily available at the users convenience at any time. 20 3.2.2 Input methods Several methods of input were found and evaluated prior to the design of the device. The aim was to find one or more in- put metho ds that fit the desired interaction with the device. The methods should be easy to use in a living room context and feel natural to the user, requiring little effort to use. Touch Controls During recent years there has been a great increase in the use of touch controlled interfaces on several different devices. Laptops commonly use touchpads or trackpads for control- ling the cursor in the operating system. Smartphones and tablets most often use touchscreens. Trackpads As mentioned, touchpads or trackpads are used in laptops to control the cursor in the operating system, see figure 3.12. By sliding a finger over a designated surface the movement is replicated on the screen with a corresponding movement of the cursor. Pressing down hard, or lifting and tapping the finger, on the touchpad creates a selecting operation on the screen, a so called ‘click’. A hard press of the finger results in a tactile and audial feedback given to the user, offering an easier comprehension that a click has been made (Mackenzie and Oniszczak, 1997). Touchscreens Touchscreens allow the user to control a graphical user inter- face by touching, with a finger or a stylus, directly on a screen, see figure 3.11. With a graphical interface designed for use with touchscreens it is possible to interact directly with the displayed items. This eliminates the need for an extra device to control a cursor, or even the use of a cursor. Touchscreens are commonly used in tablets, home appliances, mobile phones and tablet-PCs. There are several different technologies used in trackpads and touchscreens but the most common are resistive and capaci- tive matrices. Resistive technology is when a top flexible layer touches a voltage gradient in a bottom layer to record x and y coordinates for control of the cursor. A capacitive matrix uses a patterned sensor placed under a touch surface. When a finger touches the surface a change in current is detected in the pat- tern resulting in a touch event (Touch Topics, 2009). Multitouch and Gestures With multitouch it is possible to detect several different touch events at the same time. By being able to differenti- ate separate touch events (or fingers) it is possible to allow for more natural interaction with for example touch screens (TED, 2006). There are possibilities of creating applications that require no intermediate interfaces, like buttons or menus (TED, 2006). Instead, the user interacts directly with the content using movements created by sliding fingers over a touch surface. This type of interaction is quite common in smart phones. An example is the photos application in the Apple iPhone where a user can pinch his or her fingers on the screen to enlarge an image. By swiping the fingers over the surface a user can also flip between images. These types of movements, pinching and swiping or similar, are called gestures. These gestures control different events that happen onscreen. An example of this is the two finger scroll on web pages. Swiping to fingers down on a trackpad causes the web page to scroll down, enabling the user to access more in- formation. This is a direct analogue of the physical world where a paper is moved upward as a text read from top to bottom. Mouse and Keyboard The use of a mouse and keyboard is the most common way to interact with a computer. There are also combined keyboard mouse sets specifically designed for use with TV sets in a liv- ing room environment. A problem with using a keyboard and mouse in a living room is that a mouse often require some kind of flat surface to work properly. Furthermore, using a mouse and keyboard on a low living room table might affect a users body posture negatively. Eye Tracking and Eye Control Onscreen objects can be controlled by tracking the move- ment of a user’s eyes. A cursor or similar can be moved around the screen by looking at specific objects. Eye track- ing and eye control works by capturing video of the user’s eyes. The information about where the user is looking is then converted into data controlling corresponding onscreen cur- sor movements. To be accurate eye tracking requires the user to sit somewhat close to the screen, between 50 and 80 cm, where the interaction is carried out (TobiiEyetracking, 2011). Figure 3.11 Ipad with touchscreen Figure 3.12 - A laptop with trackpad 21 Eye tracking has been used in both psychology and usabil- ity experiments for a long time, but there are several other applications. One of these is helping paralyzed individuals to communicate by controlling a voice interface on a screen (Gazegroup, 2011). By looking at different keys on a virtual keyboard the user can write words that can be read out loud. Lately, eye tracking has become more common in consumer products. Swedish company Tobii showed the world’s first laptop with built in eye tracking and eye control at the 2011 CeBit exhibition (TobiiEyetracking, 2011). Voice Control Speech recognition has been available in computers and cell- phones for many years. By speaking into a microphone and using a speech recognition software a user can tell a computer commands. This way of input requires the user to learn the desired commands. Mind Control Neuroengineering company Emotive has developed a device that can convert a person’s thoughts to computer commands. This is a very new technology which requires the user to learn to think all the commands beforehand. By placing a device, similar to a head band, on the user’s head it is possible to measure electric changes connected to the users mind, see figure 3.13. The electric changes are then converted to signals that control computer commands (ForaTv, 2008). When a user then thinks the same command the computer performs it. (ForaTV, 2008). Motion control A possible way for a user to interact with an interface on a TV could be by recording physical gestures and connecting these to commands. This has been done in the gaming industry for some time with the Nintedo Wii, Playstation Move and the Micro- soft Kinect. There are different techniques to capture the user’s movements. The Wii uses gyros and infrared light to capture movements and the Playstation Move works in a similar way. The Xbox Kinect works by capturing video and depth informa- tion of the user’s movementes and then converts the movement into virtual positions, see figure 3.14. These positions are given joints and by connecting specific movements to commands the user can control an onscreen interface. Natural and Multimodal User Interfaces The term Natural User Interfaces (NUI) refers to interfaces that are invisible, or become invisible, to a user when it interacts with a system (Nuigroup, 2011). A natural user in- terface relies on the fact that the user by carrying out natural motions or movements can discover how to control a system or manipulate the content of a system (Nuigroup, 2009). Nat- ural user interfaces often focus on basic human movements and motions as an input method to a graphical user interface. Touch, body gestures, vision and speech are typically used as input methods in the user interfaces. Another aspect of natu- ral user interfaces is that users have an increased possibility of quickly advancing from being novices to experts at control- ling the system (Nuigroup, 2009). In likeness to natural user interfaces there are multimodal interfaces. An interface is multimodal when several different input modalities are combined. An example of this is can be to combine speech recognition with touch as input methods in an interface (Raisamo, 1999). By combining different input meth- ods the user’s level of freedom within the interface is increased. An increased level of freedom in a system is often followed by an increase in productivity and can facilitate the user’s understand- ing of an interface (Raisamo, 1999). Raisamo (1999) describes that by using multimodal interaction within a system it is possible to make the interface both more natural and effective to the user. There are many examples where use of multimodal input results in a natural user interface. Mi- crosoft Kinect, Nintendo Wii and several touch tablets are good examples of multimodal and natural interfaces, see figure 3.11. Figure 3.13 Mindcontroll functions through the use of a headband recognising electrical signals Figure 3.14 The Xbox kinect regestring movements 22 3.2.3 Guidelines for Video Communication on TV Skype is a company that develops a text, voice and video communication application with the same name for comput- ers, TV, smartphones and tablets. The application is free to use to on the mentioned devices and for an additional small charge users can also make calls to landline phones (Skype, 2011a). In the fourth quarter of 2010 Skype had an average of 145 million connected users per month (Skype, 2011a). TV sets with Internet connectivity are becoming increas- ingly common. Skype has adapted to this trend by making their application available to TV sets as well. A possibility with this type of application is to have a small picture of a TV show within the picture showing an incoming video call. Another possibility is for a user to have only audio communi- cation with one or several people while for example watching sports. As text, voice and video communication on TV differs a lot from computers, Skype has developed design principles specific to the development of applications using Skype on TV sets or set-top boxes. Design Principles The following text reflects Skype’s view on how applications using their technology should work. A focus is put on user environment aspects, and how audio and video calls should be managed. The first thing stated by Skype (2011b) is that consumer electronics must be simple to be successful. When watch- ing TV, users are accustomed to operating the TV set with a remote using only a few buttons, like those for changing channel and adjusting the volume (Skype, 2011b). Accord- ing to Skype (2011b) these controls are optimised for touch interaction because of the fact that users usually watch TV in dimly lit environments and that their attention is directed towards the TV set, not the remote. It is also suggested that if the TV set does not have an easy way to input text, texting or chat functionality should be eliminated from the interface (Skype, 2011b). An application like Skype should ideally be running in the background on the TV set processor while the user watches TV or surfs the Internet (Skype, 2011b). This will make re- ceiving calls fast and easy. Skype (2011b) assumes that neither the caller or receiver will want to wait for the application to load and initialise when a call is made. Applications could even take this one step further and run in the background even when the TV set is in stand-by mode (Skype, 2011b). In this case, Skype (2011b) suggests that the TV set is automati- cally turned on when a call comes in to allow the receiver to answer. If the call is not answered the TV set goes back into stand-by mode within a reasonable amount of time. Skype (2011b) states that users are concerned about being disturbed by incoming calls on the Skype application while watching TV. Therefore, users should always know whether they are using the Skype application or not and have the pos- sibility to set their online status to Online, Away or Do Not Disturb according to their liking (Skype, 2011b). Notifica- tions of incoming calls need to be unobtrusive or at least very subtle, as not to disturb the user while watching TV (Skype, 2011b). Of course, the user must be able to decline incoming calls, preferably without leaving the TV show that is being watched (Skype, 2011b). Furthermore, Skype (2011b) suggests that users should also be able to put calls on hold and mute calls. Another important feature stated by Skype (2011b) is to pro- vide feedback to the user who it is communicating with and what information that is being sent. Users want the possibil- ity to hide what is shown in the background of a video call if for example the house is a mess (Skype, 2011b). In a video call use situation in a home, it is likely that more than one person will be in front of the TV and people might be coming in and out of the room. Skype (2011b) suggests that the application’s audio and video settings should be adaptable to different amount of users. An important aspect of the audio experi- ence mentioned by Skype (2011b) is to offer separate volume controls for the TV and the active call. Microphone Placement Recommendations Devices equipped with microphones to allow audio transmis- sion during an audio or video call face several engineering challenges. The first is that the distance between the near-end talker (the person sending the audio) and the microphone in the device is usually greater than 150 cm (Skype, 2010a). The farther the near-end talker is from the microphone, the weaker the outgoing speech signal becomes. The room echoes caused by the near-end speaker and the TV set also increase proportionally to the distance to the TV set (Skype, 2010a). The echoes or reverberations due to the room can be cut to a minimum with acoustic echo cancellation (AEC) algorithms (Skype, 2010a). However, Skype (2010a) states that with greater distance the AEC has to cope with increasingly loud- er echoes which may exceed their maximum performance. Skype (2010a) concludes that the issues mentioned above will diminish as the distance between the near-end talker and the microphones decreases. Omni-directional microphones can be used for distances less than 150 cm but for greater dis- tances only highly directional microphones will be sufficient (Skype, 2010a). Several directional microphones can be used to create a wider area for audio receiving (Skype, 2010a). If the device enclosing the microphones is placed in close proximity to the TV speakers, either on top, below or to either side of the TV, the microphones will have to cope with strong playback signals (Skype, 2010a). Again, this effect can also be reduced by AEC, but there is a limit to its possible performance (Skype, 2010a). If the device is designed to be integrated with the TV’s hardware components, like the speakers, its software can be designed to limit the volume from the TV speakers to stay below the critical level of the AEC (Skype, 2010a). However, Skype (2010a) claims that if the device is not designed to be integrated with the TV’s hardware components it is not possible to predict and thus design for the playback signals from the TV speakers. Another difficulty arises if a user has connected the TV to external speakers. According to Skype (2010a) these are likely to produce a higher playback signal than the TV resulting in insufficient acoustic echo cancellation. 23 The issues described above have led Skype to require clear and detailed instructions on how and where to place audio and video devices for Skype in relation to the TV (Skype, 2010a). Recommendations for Good Video Quality An audio and video communications device connected to a TV set poses certain demands on the camera connected to it. According to consumer studies cited by Skype (2010b) TV viewers typically sit between 2 m and 4 m from the TV set. As not to make the persons captured by the camera appear too small on the receiving screen, Skype (2010b) requires the camera to have a 30° diagonal field of view (FOV) down- wards from the horizontal plane, see figure 3.15. This will result in upper body coverage at 2 m and full body coverage at 4 m, thus satisfying a majority of the use cases (Skype, 2010b). If a full body view is desired at a distance of 2 m the horizontal FOV should be 57° while only upper body view at 4 m requires a FOV of 14° (Skype, 2010b). These use cases can be satisfied with the use of a zooming lens, either optical or digital zoom (Skype, 2010b). Skype (2010b) states that this provides the user with a flexibility to adjust the capture as desired and that digital zoom also adds the possibility of pan- ning or tilting the capture. Skype requires the camera to support resolutions of 640x480, 320x240 and 160x120 pixels at bit-rates from 25 Kbps to 800 Kbps (Skype, 2010b). Support for High Definition resolution is optional and will require support for bit-rates of 1.2 Mbps or more (Skype, 2010b). Figure 3.15 - Field of view from the camera 24 3.3 Internet and tv Several ways of combining the online experience users get from a computer and tablet devices with the TV experience have become available on the TV market. With added func- tionality in the TV sets the users are enabled to gain access to much more information from their living room sofa than ever before. With new functionality comes new ways of interact- ing with devices and content. 3.3.1 Internet of Things The use of the Internet in computers, both at home and at work, is a natural part of everyday life for many people today. The same can be said about Internet use in smartphones. Currently, a similar revolution is happening that could po- tentially make almost any product connected to the Internet or local networks. The goal is to create features and products that simplify tasks through the use of connectivity. Some industries have already incorporated connectivity into their businesses, like the transport industry for exam- ple. Containers, vehicles and train cars are equipped with transmitters so that information about them, like their posi- tion, can be monitored (Stiernstedt, 2011). Leading provid- ers of communication systems predict that the Internet will continue to grow rapidly and that a increasing number of connected devices and products will be a part of this growth (Stiernstedt, 2011). 3.3.3 Internet on the TV Internet TVs or interactive TVs refers to TV sets that in some way are connected to the Internet. Many of the tasks that are usually performed on a computer can now also be done on a TV set, such as listening to music, streaming video and browsing the web. The interactivity of Internet TVs today is quite varied. Simple versions of Internet TVs can only recieve small amounts of extra information included in the regular broadcast, such as show information, without connecting them to an Inter- net source. The more complex Internet TV sets offer more interactivity and the possibility to use them more freely by accessing more content, (Eli, Groabel and Gerbarg, 2004). Some TV networks make their broadcast content available online allowing the user to watch it at any time, not having to wait for it to air on the network. With a high-end Internet TV a user can access this type of content. The use of applications, or apps, have increased in popularity in the so called smartphones. Applications have also spread to interactive TV sets allowing users to download and use them at their convenience. As most TV manufacturers have their own software platform for their TV sets, the apps have to be made to fit each specific manufacturer’s interface. There is also a possibility to bring interactivity to any TV set by using a set-top box with a user interface. This has been available for quite some time, offering users services like video on demand and information about running shows. In the last couple of years more advanced set-top boxes have emerged like the Logitech Revue which uses Google TV and Boxee Box which has it’s own interface. These boxes allow users to access streaming content online on any TV set with a HDMI connection (Logitech, 2011a). 3.3.2 TV on the Internet TV networks are often making their content, shows and bonus takes available online for customers to view at their convenience. As TV content historically always has been broadcast on a tight schedule it has been a time-dependant media. With the possibility of accessing video content online at any time, the way we watch TV is changing. Watching TV has always been considered a way to relax, pass time, and to socialise with friends and companions (Steincamp, 2010). Convenience, on the other hand, has been shown to be one of the main reasons why users chose to view streaming content online instead of regular broadcast. Being able to choose what, when and how to watch TV content are also reasons why more and more people start to use stream- ing services (Steincamp, 2010). With set-top boxes being able to receive both normal broadcasted TV and access streaming online content, the old fashioned TV is converging with the online TV, but it is not problem free. When Google TV released set-top boxes and Internet TV sets in collaboration with Logitech and Sony, some of the larger TV networks blocked the software from accessing their online content (Boulton, 2010). This was claimed to be because of the networks’ fear of piracy but was also because the networks wanted clear way of charging cus- tomers for their content (Boulton, 2010). Another issue was the loss of ad revenue in Internet based content compared to broadcast content. On the Swedish market many networks have their own streaming services, using their own software. Accessing this content on a computer is easy, but when it comes to mobile phones, set-top boxes and tablets this becomes a problem. Software plug-ins such as Adobe Flash or Microsoft Silver- light are often needed to play the streaming content. Howev- er, mobile devices and set-top boxes does not always support the plug-ins needed. As a result, users often cannot watch the streaming services on devices like these without using specific apps. 25 4. Methods This chapter contains descriptions of the generative methods that were used to gather requirements and to facilitate the design process. 26 4.1 Requiremt gathering methods Below is a description of the methods used for gathering and managing information about potential users. 4.1.1 Interviews Interviews can be performed in several different ways, individually or in groups, and structured or unstructured. A structured interview is when the interviewer strictly follows a set of predefined questions and never deviates from it (Karls- son, 2007). This type of interview is most often used to gather quantitative, that is to say simple and measurable, informa- tion (Karlsson, 2007). Karlsson (2007) states that in the opposite, an unstructured interview, the interviewer discusses a certain subject with the interviewee rather than just posing questions. The unstruc- tured interview is supported by a list of questions that should be posed in such a way that the interviewee is encouraged to speak more freely and hopefully give exhaustive answers. Here, the interviewer is encouraged to deviate from the predefined list of questions if the interviewee should touch on any inter- esting or unforeseen aspects. The unstructured interview will thus provide more qualitative information that gives a deeper understanding of the interviewee’s views and opinions (Karls- son, 2007). Karlsson (2007) recommends that the list of ques- tions is structured in a way so that the interview starts with questions that are more general (how?) and proceeds towards more specific questions on attitudes or problems (why?). Regardless of which interview technique is used, the list of questions that is to be used should be tested in a least one pilot interview. The pilot interview will give an indication of how the questions are interpreted by an interviewee and if their internal order gives a natural flow (Karlsson, 2007). 4.1.2 Focus Group A focus group is a form of interview where a group of people are gathered to discuss a certain topic (Karlsson, 2007). Ac- cording to Karlsson (2007), the focus group is used to find out how potential customers and users perceive a product, the attitudes they have towards it and what their requirements are. A moderator leads the discussion to make sure that it stays focused on the intended topic (Karlsson, 2007). One of the strengths with this method is that the participants trig- ger new associations in each other during their conversation (Karlsson, 2007). Of course, there is also a risk that this could lead individuals to express things that are based on what oth- ers say, rather than their own thoughts and opinions. In preparation for the focus group the goal and target group have to be defined. A list of questions and an interview guide also needs to be prepared. The next step is to contact the participants and to send them invitations. It can be helpful to send the participants some form of assignment in their invi- tation, such as a workbook or similar. This can help them to start thinking about the topic of the focus group in advance and make them better prepared and more vocal during the discussion. The focus group is then carried out in accordance with the prepared interview guide. It is recommended that an audio or video recording is made of the focus group for later reference. Afterwards the interview should be transcribed and analysed. The results are gathered and presented in a compre- hensive way. 4.1.3 KJ-analysis A KJ-analysis is used to manage large amounts of verbal data that has been gathered through interviews or similar (Karlsson, 2007). It is a method to visualise the data in order to make it more comprehensible and manageable. The result shows a graphical representation of relations which facilitate the understanding of a problem or requirements (Karlsson, 2007). The method is based on a bottom-up strategy that starts by focusing on the details and then moving upwards to overlying levels (Karlsson, 2007). The participants of the KJ-analysis should preferably have different competencies to make the result as objective as possible (Karlsson, 2007). The process of conducting a KJ-analysis starts by writing down facts, or statements, on post-it notes, one fact per note. When all facts have been written down the notes are placed in a corner of a flat and empty surface, like a paper for instance. The notes are then placed one by one on the designated area. If a note is related to the contents of another note they should be placed together. Eventually groups of notes will form. Notes can be rearranged if they are found to fit better into another group. After all of the notes have been placed, each group should be given a name that represent the content of the notes. Finally the result is documented for further use. 4.1.4 Functional analysis A functional analysis collects all the data from research and user tests during the product development process A func- tional analysis is conducted by stating a main function for a product and then breaking the function down to several sub functions. Functions are often stated by a verb followed by a noun, such as for example: allow interaction. All of the func- tions are also rated after level of importance. The levels main function (MF), necessary function (N), desirable function (D) and unnecessary function (U) are used to rate the functions. The functional analysis can be used in the product develop- ment process as a tool for brainstorming ideas and to evaluate concepts. ( Johannesson, Persson, Pettersson. 2004. s.93) 4.2 Development methods Below is a description of the methods used for generating and communicating concept ideas during the design phase. 4.2.1 Brainstorming Brainstorming is a method used to quickly stimulate and inspire ideas in a group of people (Karlsson, 2007). Karlsson (2007) states that the participants of a brainstorming session should preferably have different competencies and that one of them should act as a facilitator of the process (Karlsson, 2007). It is important that the atmosphere is informal and 27 that negative criticism is avoided (Karlsson, 2007). A brainstorming session is started by specifying the problem (Karlsson, 2007). When the participants start formulating solutions they should be written down or illustrated on paper or on a Wyte-board. The important thing is that everyone can see all ideas that have come up. The participants are then encouraged to develop or draw inspiration from the ideas that the other group members have had (Karlsson, 2007). According to Karlsson (2007) a session should last about 20 to 30 minutes or until there are no more new ideas. All ideas should be saved as their potential might not be realised until later. If the brainstorming session results in one or more solu- tions, or new ideas, it has been successful (Karlsson, 2007). 4.2.2 Personas In order to portray the thoughts and actions of a poten- tial user it can be helpful to create a so called persona. The persona is a fictive character that possesses the most common characteristics that a user group has (Karlsson, 2007). The persona can be used as a way of communicating user needs and requirements to those involved with the development of a product or service (Karlsson, 2007). It is helpful to use the persona both in innovation and evaluation. In most cases it is preferable to create several personas with different characteristics, as there often are many different types of users within a target group, sometimes with contra- dictory needs (Karlsson, 2007). According to Karlsson (2007) the persona should consist of a name, gender, age, interests, hobbies, profession, how this person perceives the product or service and what it means to the persona. Karlsson (2007) goes on to say that it is important not to create the ‘aver- age’ user but rather the ‘extreme’ user, the one with the most demanding needs. 4.2.3 Scenarios In product development a scenario is a fabricated use situa- tion of a product or service that describes the intended goal (Karlsson, 2007). A scenario describes and illustrates how a user interacts with a product or service, who buys it, which features it has, how the features are used and so on (Karlsson, 2007). The scenario relies heavily on knowledge about the user and coming trends. Therefore, the scenario should be based upon information from the data collection and the conclusions drawn from it (Karlsson, 2007). It can be beneficial to construct several scenarios to illustrate different kinds of user needs or use situations. Scenarios can also be useful during interviews with users and customers to elicit latent information without having the interviewee perform an action (Karlsson, 2007). 4.2.4 Sketching, Models, Mock-ups and Prototypes During the development process of a product it is useful to be able to quickly test and communicate ideas. It is often easier to comprehend an idea if you can see it or even touch it instead of reading a description of it (Karlsson, 2007). The different stages of the development process require different techniques to be used. The fastest and most straightforward technique is sketching. Sketching allows for fast illustrations of ideas, all that is needed is a pen and a paper. This is often how ideas are first communicated to others. Despite its relative simplicity, compared to models for example, a sketch is a good way of describing aesthetics, form, structure or interaction (Karls- son, 2007). Sketches can be used throughout the development process as new ideas or solutions appear. The refinement of the sketches can also vary, for example simpler pencil sketches for fast communication or coloured renderings for presentations. When 2-dimensional sketches are not enough to illustrate an idea 3-dimensional models are a good substitute. Models can be built in many types of materials, like wood, clay or plastic foam, and they can be in actual scale or scaled down. A model is just a static form without any moving parts. It is suitable for experiencing what the actual product could look like in real life and how it could be to interact with physically (Karlsson, 2007). Like sketches, models can be used continu- ously in the design process to test and communicate ideas. To test specific features or functions of a product the model has to be taken one step further. Karlsson (2007) describes a mock-up as a model with some degree of functionality. It could be a latch that can be opened or buttons with a haptic response. Mock-ups are most often used after some progress has been made in the development of a product as they il- lustrate specific details. In the final stages of a product development phase the prod- uct needs to be tested in a fully functional state. This is when a prototype comes into use. A prototype is the first fully functional version of a product which is used in tests to verify its functionality (Karlsson, 2007). 4.2.5 Structural Models Structural models is a way to develop structural variants of a product by different ordering of its components (Muller, 2001). In most cases, many of a product’s components are known prior to its design. For example, a vacuum cleaner can be said to consist of a motor, a dust bag, a suction hose and a suction nozzle. Muller (2001) presents a generative technique to create a multitude of models by placing physical represen- tations of the components in space in a large variety of ways. These models can act as a starting point to find new ways to design a product by considering the distribution of its com- ponents rather than just encapsulating a pre-constructed core. Physical representations of the components can be made of simple materials like plastic foam, paper or wood. To allow a distribution of the components in all axes steel wire can be used for vertical variations (Muller, 2001). The method is intended to be implemented as a pre-study to the concept generation phase of a design project. Placement of the components should be made freely without any con- sideration of feasibility (Muller, 2001). When the possibilities of distributing the components have been exhausted it can be useful to evaluate and categorise the result. Examples of cat- egories are direction, symmetry, regular, irregular or balance (Muller, 2001). Each category of structural models with simi- lar distribution will then show possible structural concepts or forms that the product could assume (Muller, 2001). 28 4.2.6 Computer Aided Design Computer Aided Design (CAD) is a generic term for computer software used for designing 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional objects ( Jarfors, et al., 2006). Objects are created by placing points and curves in a virtual space and using these to form shapes and surfaces. Anything from simple forms to highly advanced machines can be created in CAD software. The benefits of CAD include time saving construction, virtual testing of tolerances and functions, quick technical drafting, simulation of and preparation for manu- facturing, etc. CAD software is widely used in a variety of modern manufacturing industries like automotive, aviation, ship building, but also the film and gaming industry. CAD software can produce files with embedded control in- formation for numerically controlled (NC) machines ( Jarfors, et al., 2006). These so called Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) systems can manufacture products in a large variety of materials and forms ( Jarfors, et al., 2006). 4.2.7 Design Format Analysis Design Format Analysis (DFA) is a method for identifying and communicating how form elements are used to signify products from a specific brand. A design format is described by Warell (2001, p.107) as the container of the factors that goes into the form design of a product. The design format is influenced both by factors that are internal and external to a company. Company internal factors are for instance styling influences from previous generations of products (Warell, 2001). Factors that are external to a company can according to Warell (2001) be trends, contemporary styles, changing values in society and the design of products from competitors. These factors are external in the sense that they are available to use by all companies in the product design (Warell, 2001). The design format is simultaneously evolving with the design of a product as new variations and form ideas are developed dur- ing the design process (Warell, 2001). This leads to the fact that the final product form also contributes to the content of the design format (Warell, 2001). In cases where a company designs and produces a range of products, a so called product family, it is important to use the same design format for all products in the product fam- ily (Warell, 2001). By doing so, the products will give visual references to each other, which in turn provides a clear brand identity and facilitates brand recognition (Warell, 2001). In a Design Format Analysis (DFA) a number of products from a brand’s product family are compared. Each product can be said to have its own design format, because the visual form is unique for each product (Warell, 2001). However, Warell (2001) also states that the products share the same format as they are part of the same product family. The process of conducting a DFA starts by choosing 5-15 products from a brand’s product range. Specific design ele- ments in each product are then singled out, some will occur in several products and some might only be represented in one product. The next step is to construct a grid with the design elements organised into rows and the products into columns. It is now possible to check the occurrence of each design element in each product. If a product has a strong visual occurrence of a design element it is awarded 2 points, represented by a filled circle in the grid. If the occurrence of a design element is present but weak it is awarded 1 point, represented by an unfilled circle. If there is no occurrence of a design element in a product it is awarded no points and no marking is made in the grid. The procedure is repeated for all design elements and all products. When the DFA has been completed, the points are added vertically for each product and horizontally for each design element. The result provides both a numerical and visual indi- cation of how strong or weak each product denotes its design format. The DFA also indicates which design features are the most typical to the brand and which are not. 4.2.8 Moodboards A moodboard can be used to describe different aspects around a product, company, service or brand (Furendal, Björnsköld, 2007). The moodboard can consist of a collec- tion of images, colours or text that describe an emotion of the company, service or brand. The moodboards can help the development team in getting a common design goal and to make sure that group is on the same path. The moodboard can be used both in a creative sense, helping and inspiring in the creative process, and in an evaluative sense, facilitating the decision making process. A moodboard is created by collecting images, text and col- ours that describe the objective and then put out on a board. Having a moodboard close by and visible can work as a reminder of the goals during the entire product development process (Furendal, Björnsköld, 2007). 29 5. Process description This chapter provides a rough overview of how the project was carried out from start to finish. 30 5.1 Introduction The work conducted in this project can be divided in three phases: Technology and user research, concept creation and concept refinement, see figure 5.1. These phases will be de- scribed in more detail in the following chapters. 5.2 Information gathering The project started by gathering information about trends and technology in related products and markets. As more knowledge in this field was gained it was time to bring in the users to get their opinions and perceptions on it. Two focus groups were carried out and complemented by interviewing sales personnel in home entertainment stores. The accumu- lated information from this phase resulted in a functional analysis that laid the foundation for the creative process. 5.3 Concept creation When sufficient background knowledge had been gathered on users and technology the concept creation phase started. People of Lava does not have a predefined form language so the first task in this phase was to create one. With a desired form language defined the idea generation could begin. The process went from vague visions to increasingly detailed con- cepts as more functions were added and user needs fulfilled. The process involved continuous evaluation of the created concepts against the functional analysis. Input from People of Lava, the project supervisor at Chalmers and mentors at Ze- nit further spurred iteration and evaluation of the concepts. Finally, one final concept was chosen out of four promising alternatives. 5.4 Concept Refinement The final phase of the project consisted of refinement of the final concept. The work included solving some of the physical functions and improving the visual form and expression. The goal of this phase was to make the concept as realisable as possible. Looking at the project as a whole it is realised that the three main phases were not as isolated as described above. All three phases have been overlapping as new information has been found continuously and affected the developing process. For example, several new products have been released on the market during the development process that are very close to the desired result from this project. This has resulted in subsequent efforts in trying to find really unique solutions. Users, fellow students and people involved with the project have also provided additional insights that have resulted in continuous refinement of concepts and sparked new ideas. Furthermore, as the concepts have gotten increasingly de- tailed, new issues have been found and solved. Figure 5.1 - The iterative process of this project. 31 6. User behaviour and brand identity This chapter summarises the results from the generative methods that provided information about the intended users and People of Lava’s visual brand identity. The chapter is concluded by a summary of the functional requirements on the concept. 32 6.1 Introduction During the first phase of the development process informa- tion related to the project was collected and studied. This information was later used as a platform to base decisions on in the development phase and as a starting point in the crea- tive work. Much of the information gathered in this phase is presented in chapter 3. Some of the functions described here are outside of the delimitations of the project and have therefore not been considered. 6.2 Technology and Trends In the project brief People of Lava expressed a wish that the device should incorporate an innovative interaction with the Window to the World software. Therefore, the research phase started by studying available input methods. The scope of this research was made wide to allow for as many possibilities as possible. Much of the information on cutting edge input methods was found in video presentations by researchers from universi- ties and companies provided by websites like TED.com and YouTube.com. Blog articles and technology reviews were also included in the research. Many of these technologies were so new at the time that this was the only type of available information. The information on input methods is described in detail in chapter 3.2.2. A study of recent research showed a strong development towards natural user interfaces, as they are becoming increas- ingly present in everyday technology. With tablets, smart- phones and game consoles like the Microsoft Xbox Kinect and Nintendo Wii, users are already getting used to innova- tive yet intuitive ways of controlling software. Most of the input methods that were found could be inter- esting to use in new products. The negative aspect is that many of them are at an early stage of development and not yet ready for widespread use in consumer electronics. In this project it is important to find an input method that gives the user a suitable and comfortable way of controlling the system. Another important aspect is to find a method of input which most of the users are familiar with, thus maximising the target audience. The number of interactive TV sets have also increased during the last couple of years. With the release of the People of Lava Scandinavia TV set in spring 2010, mobile software had made its way to the TV market. Soon to follow was Google, Sony and Logitech with their Google-TV devices. Several new products that increase the interactivity in TV sets were released in the duration of this project. This shows that the market for applications, social media and communication in a living room environment is increasing and that customers are getting comfortable with the technology being used. 6.3 User behaviour The focus groups were held at two different occasions with 4-5 participants at each time, see figure 6.1. The participants were chosen to represent early adopters and early majority users according the diffusion of innovation theory. It is be- lieved that members of these groups are around 20 to 30 years of age and that they have a great interest in technology and gadgets. Members of these groups, both men and women, where chosen to participate in the focus groups in order to get valid input. The participants were divided into two different groups, one group of early adopters with great interest in technology, and one group of early majority users with some knowledge of technology and a moderate interest in new products. The reason for this grouping was to be able to control the level of technological knowledge in the discussion. The intention with the focus groups was to obtain a broad overview of how gadgets are used within a home environment. A secondary objective was to find out how users want to interact with future products and to use this knowledge in the design of the new product. Workbooks were sent by mail to the participants of the focus group prior to the group meeting. The workbook consisted of five small assignments that would trigger the user to think about their situation and how they use their personal prod- ucts, figure 6.2. The workbooks were used as stimuli for the discussion during the focus groups together with film clips and picture collage assignment. The entire workbook can be seen in appendix 1. Fig 6.1 Focus group users creating their perfect living room Figure 6.2 Users presented their gadgets in a workbook before the focus group meeting. 33 The focus group resulted in valuable data regarding user hab- its and views on technology and innovation. The differences in habits and gadget use between the two groups were almost non-existing and similar ideas and concepts were discussed during the meetings. All of the users commented on their own gadgets and their functionality. Most of the positive comments hinted that us- ability and functionality had a large part in making the users feel comfortable with the products. Versatility and portability were also mentioned by many users in relation quality and ease of use. The users talked much about how tablet devices were better suited for comfortably consuming media than productivity. The device being designed will probably be used mostly for consuming media, something that would have to be taken into consideration. A conclusion that could be made was that the way you control a device affects how and what you use it for. Tasks are performed on the device that is most comfortable and easy to use, alternatively on the device that is closest the user. This shows that finding an input method that is both familiar, easy to use and comfortable is of high importance. It also shows that the interaction with the product has