Water Life Cycle Assessment of Cars: a case study of internal combustion engines and battery electric vehicles

Abstract

Climate change is intensifying both water shortages and flooding. Stakeholders, investors, and governments are urging companies to implement better water management practices. As the automotive industry shifts toward vehicle electrification, it is essential to understand water consumption throughout the vehicle life cycle. This study reviews water LCA methods, focusing on how they address regional scarcity, measure impacts, and compare data across production stages to support informed decision-making. This investigation employed a methodology combining systematic literature review with an original water LCA performed via OpenLCA software. Life cycle inventory (LCI) data were secured from a collaborating automotive manufacturer and supplemented with information from the Ecoinvent (versions 3.11 and 3.8) and LCA for Experts databases (for which a temporary educational student licence was employed), published studies, and statistical datasets pertaining to the national-grid electricity mix. The review identified AWARE v1.2 and ReCiPe 2016 Midpoint (H) as the most commonly used freshwater LCA methods. AWARE accounts for water scarcity; ReCiPe does not at the midpoint level. Both methods were applied and compared. The functional unit of this LCA study is defined as provision of a family car capable of driving 200,000 km, with system boundaries covering material production, manufacturing, and use (including maintenance). The geographic scope includes China, the US, UK, Germany, and Sweden. Material production and use phases contributed most to water impacts. Data variability across databases reflects regional water availability, production technologies, and scarcity metrics. Going forward, more granular and regionally specific data is essential to ensure accurate representation of the life cycle water impact, and meaningful results considering regional water scarcity factors.