Early-Life PFAS Exposure in Sweden: A Study of Maternal Transfer and Prevention Through Drinking Water Treatment Technologies

Abstract

PFAS are persistent and environmentally hazardous substances that occur in drinking water and may pose adverse health effects in humans, particularly in vulnerable populations such as fetuses and children. Exposure can occur through drinking water and be transferred from pregnant women to the fetus via the placenta or from mother to child via breastmilk, making early-life exposure difficult to avoid. Such exposure has been associated with effects on immune function, including reduced vaccine response, as well as impacts on child development. This study aims to investigate the potential health effects of PFAS exposure in fetuses and infants in Sweden, and to evaluate how current water treatment methods need to be developed to meet existing and future regulatory requirements. The study was conducted as a literature review based on scientific articles, complemented by interviews with experts in the field. The findings indicate that PFAS exposure may affect children’s health even at low concentrations, highlighting the importance of reducing exposure. At the same time, the current state of knowledge is characterized by significant uncertainties, particularly regarding short-chain and ultrashort-chain PFAS, where lack of data should not be interpreted as evidence of low risk. Current treatment methods can largely meet existing guideline values but have notable limitations, especially in that they primarily remove rather than degrade PFAS. While conventional techniques are generally effective for long-chain PFAS, they are less effective for short-chain compounds. Emerging technologies such as electrochemical oxidation show potential for destructive PFAS treatment, including degradation of shorter-chain compounds, although challenges related to energy demand, operational costs, and large-scale implementation remain significant. Overall, the study shows that no optimal treatment method for PFAS currently exists, as the most promising techniques face high cost and large-scale implementation challenges. Future efforts should therefore focus on the development of more costeffective methods to make advanced treatment technologies, such as electrochemical water treatment, cost-effective for widespread municipal use. Furthermore, the need for PFAS source control is critical, given that PFAS treatment is resource-intensive, and reducing exposure is particularly important for vulnerable populations such as pregnant women and children.